The fields of Native American history and archaeology are intriguing, yet undersubscribed, partially due to its novelty as a field. Exploring the rich history and culture of American Indigenous peoples allows us to understand economic and political systems that form today’s society, as well as bolster modern science and technology with Indigenous practice. To access this knowledge, it is important to first study the historiographic literature to study how the field has progressed in recent decades. I’d love to share some of what I’ve learned from taking courses in Indigenous history and visiting sites like the Cahokia Mounds and the Bishop Petroglyphs.
Native American History literature is varied and deep. One prominent author has been Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz – a historian, author, activist who’s been active in advocating for reform in history and politics in America. Being a Native descendent, she has been involved in activist movements for decades, including the American Indian Movement (AIM) which took place in the 60s and 70s. She’s best known for her book “An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States”, which argues that American history can only be properly understood when away from the Eurocentric lens, into indigenous peoples lens. She introduces the concept of settler colonialism and how American manifest destiny narrative hid deeper more corrupt economic motives. Her work has been influential in shaping the field of Indigenous history and promoting a critical understanding of the role of settler colonialism in American history.
Another author, Emeritus Professor Albert Hurtado at University of Colorado Boulder, who studies Indigenous history specifically focused on the American West during the Spanish Colonial era. He has a particular focus on Indigenous History in the American West, specifically during the Spanish colonial period. One text, “Indian Survival on the American Frontier” discusses the history of the Southwest and interactions between Indigenous peoples and settlers throughout different occupations of California (Mexican, Spanish, etc). He demonstrates how American indigenous adapted constantly in response to the economic systems of the region, often being manipulated by Anglo and Spanish economics. Hurtado’s work is notable for its attention to the complexities of Indigenous-Spanish relations and the diversity of Indigenous experiences in the colonial period.
Lastly, the text “The Lakota Way: Stories and Lessons for Living” is notable in Indigenous literature. This narrative was written by Joseph Marshall – a Lakota writer and historian who has written several books on Lakota history and culture. The Lakota Way presents traditional Lakota stories and teachings as a means of promoting personal growth and spiritual development. Marshall is also an accomplished storyteller and has been involved in efforts to preserve Lakota oral traditions. His work is widely regarded as an important contribution to the understanding of Lakota culture and spirituality.
I had the opportunity to contribute to archaeological projects at the Presidio in San Francisco, California. Being able to work locally was significant because it allowed me to better imagine what events have taken place in my home region. Also, having spoken to several archaeologists who had worked in the area, I had high hopes for seeing the Presidio for myself and discovering something notable. I ended up staying in San Francisco for hours after my shift was over, talking with archaeologists and exploring the site.
The state of the site is ongoing. The meadow where the archaeological sites are located once housed the American quarters where General Pershing was stationed in the early 1900s. The Archaeology Lab is located at the Presidio in San Francisco. The land here is divided into layers where numerous layers expose many eras of California’s history, all the way down to the ER layer, below which there is no human activity (past 6-7 millenia ago). Though the city of San Francisco was officially founded in 1776 by Spanish explorers, artifacts go as far back as around 6-7 thousand years ago when the first humans inhabited the area. However, artifacts that date between 1850 and the late 1900s are most commonly found, as San Francisco truly became a populated city after the Gold Rush began in 1848. The process here begins in the site where excavation extracts large objects and buckets of sediments containing smaller materials that need to be filtered out. Every aspect of the site is photographed professionally and preserved via photogrammetry. By joining a series of hundreds of photos, a digital, 3d copy of the site is recorded forever. Buckets of sediments are brought up to the lab for sifting, where volunteers filter through for valuable artifacts. Once all artifacts are isolated and sorted, everything goes to the lab for archaeologists to study. I participated in sifting along with several other volunteers.
Many elements of The Presidio’s history resulted in the destruction of the original edifices. The buildings constructed during Spanish occupation were already vulnerable, due to their construction with weak, local adobe. The environment of California was far too moist, and any bricks constructed were unstable compared to superior, more stable bricks produced in New Mexico. In 1914, General Pershing took command of the 8th Brigade at the Presidio of San Francisco with his wife, Helen, and their children. In 1815, General Pershing was called away to Texas for military reasons due to increasing Mexican American Border conflict. Helen, and four children stayed there until tragedy struck years later when they perished in a house fire. Only her son, Warren Pershing, survived the disaster. Since this ordeal, historians have worked to preserve original buildings. Although only a few buildings there have original elements, the rest of the Presidio has been remade in traditional architecture. Two buildings in the Presidio contain their original wall, old foundation, and original roof shingles.
Where one of the Pershing monuments stands, with an American flag, there used to be Pershing’s quarters, but then replaced with meadow, which archaeologists are now excavating. The whole building was Ushaped, and fit under the parking lot around the site.
As made clear, Alexander of Macedonia had an unusual character with obscure motives with exceptional talent for many areas. “Aside from unquestioned military genius, Alexander merges as a master of propaganda and a skilled manipulator of his personal image”(Britannica). He was very careful with his portraits, only allowing three artists to create original depictions of himself — one responsible for paint renditions, one for sculptures, and one for gems and coins.
Alexander was very particular in sculpting the way others thought of him. However, even without these efforts, he was already deified. Over his career he was increasingly associated with divinity and perfection. Part of this was due to his military prowess and ability to conquer all great civilizations of the known world, where he “never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered… due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops''(Britannica). Fanatics throughout history even created “Alexander Romance”, a genre of romanticized legends about the career of Alexander. (not realistic often, expanded his legacy)
Over his career, Alexander increasingly associated himself with the divine. Alexander earned his title “Alexander the Great” — now a household name —from his exceptional military prowess and ability to conquer nearly the whole of the Eurasian continent’s civilized civilizations. Further, Britannica mentioned that “he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered…due to the use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops”. His spotless military record and legacy even gave way to a new genre of literature “Alexander Romance” — a body of romanticized legends about the career of Alexander the Great. Though these stories were often false, they greatly expanded his image as a divine warrior.
In Egypt, “the Egyptian oracular shrine at the oasis of Siwah, in the desert west of the Nile, confirmed his descent from the god Zeus Ammon. In paintings, Alexander wore divine ram horns and lion skin of the mythological hero Heracles.
Alexander the Greek had an esoteric, complex personality with unknown, higher motives. He clearly was confident, even exhibiting “sheer hubris”, but many would argue that he was rightfully so. Additionally, Alexander had a fierce determination, almost supernatural obsession for his work, pushing on endlessly to conquer the world despite already establishing his own European Empire. He was a ruthless warrior and strategist, but also civilized and refined. He held a high respect for history, and possibly even found inspiration from past historical greats. For instance, during his conquests, he supposedly visited the city of Ilium (also known as Troy. See “Why Was Troy Also Called Ilium?” in Bibliography) just as a romantic gesture inspired by his learning about Homer. Whether he simply acted as a curious tourist or if he had some spiritual motive for coming to Ilium, he clearly was not purely a conqueror who had no intellectual value. He killed not for sport, but rationally as to best pursue his mission.
“When the Thebans refused to surrender, [Alexander] made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar’s house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Unlike other conquerors such as Genghis Khan who enacted violence excessively, Alexander of Macedonia saw opportunity to spare resources and people. It wouldn’t be too far off to think that this was Alexander’s original plan: To sacrifice Thebes so that others would surrender peacefully and be saved. Further, Alexander exhibited kindness and humanity to women. When Alexander conquered the Achaemenid Dynasty’s Capital, “the struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands. The women were treated with chivalrous care”(Britannica). The history books certainly paint Alexander to be a strong man physically and mentally who ruled with class and dignity.
After completing his conquest of the Mediterranean, Alexander began his campaigns to the East. Despite the already ambitious and seemingly complete military feats that Alexander accomplished in the West, he still worked to expand as far into the East as possible. His forces reached as far as the tip of Northwestern India 326, 325 BC, where his troops, reported to be generally fiercely loyal to him, mutinied and forced Alexander to retreat. Here, “Alexander — whose motivations for conquest remain indistinct - is said to have wept and to have erected 12 massive alars as a thanks offering ‘at the end of the world’” (Bosworth 1988).
Alexander the Great died age 32 in Babylon, having conquered the whole world (or what was considered the world). The Empire created by Alexander the Great spanned from the Balkan Peninsula to Western Asia(356-323 BC). Like his father, Alexander’s causes for death are obscure.
The Alexander mosaic, depicting Alexander besting the Achaemenid Dynasty in the Battle of Issus. Darius III fleas in a chariot
INVESTIGATION INTO WORLD CONQUERORS + NOTABLE FIGURES ACROSS WORLD + TIME PERIODS
Providing Historical Background as well as Archaeology and their Physical Remnants
Part 1 - Who was Alexander the Great?
The civilization of Macedon was considered rustic, barbaric, and uncivilized before the reign of King Phillip II. Phillip was very capable, and helped transform the image of Macedon into a robust, developed society. Author Chris Scarre mentioned that he “persuaded subjects to settle in cities and to stop wearing sheepskins”(Scarre 500). He was very well rounded, being a renowned politician in Southern Greece and a participant in panhellenic sports games. On the day he won the chariot races at the Olympic games, his son, Alexander III was born.
In historical recordings, The assassination of King Phillip II is very obscure. The consensus is that he was assassinated in the theater of Pella, the capital of Macedonia, in 336 BC possibly by political rivals. According to ancient Greek Historian Dioderous, Other members of the family were assassinated at roughly the same time period, indicating a possible rivalry or conspiracy. Others suggest that the murder was Instigated by Persian King Darius III to hinder Phillip’s allied powers — The League of Corinth — from enacting their plans of liberating Greek city states in Asia Minor from the Achaemenid Dynasty. King Phillip was buried in the big tomb, the Macedonian Royal funerary, in Vergina, Modern day Greece.
Alexander of Macedonia was brought up with influence from many mentors — all wildly significant figures of the Hellenistic World. He was constantly exposed to military science and leadership skills taught by his father. He also mastered combat under Leonidas I, a king of Sparta, and became well versed in history, philosophy, religion, logic, and general sciences by Aristotle. At the time of Phillip II’s death, Alexander was just 20, but evidently well fit to rule. Once he assumed power, he immediately began a 12 year period of conquest across Eurasia.
The first leg of his conquests involved securing the Greek City states. The Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE marked the completion of this feat, when he defeated a coalition of Greek City States which included Athens and Thebes. After decisively ending Hellenistic Freedom, Alexander worked to bring the Mediterranean and near East closer to the Hellenistic World. During this time, he built up his repertoire through numerous military feats such as the tactical victory of Granicus River and Issus, Besieging the Phoenician city Tyre, Defeating Darius III and the massive Achaemenid Dynasty, and taking Egypt, who happily surrendered to him.
Hello Everyone,
After months of extensive work, I am proud to present my book, "Faces of Archaeology". This book is a compilation of podcasts, blogs, and essays that I have collected over the years and serves two important purposes.
Firstly, Faces of Archaeology aims to combat the image of archaeology as an esoteric field by providing insights into the lives of professors in the field. Archaeologists provide insights on why they’ve dedicated whole careers to archaeology as well as how archaeology can be applied in an interdisciplinary way to benefit other fields. By looking into the past, we can benefit our future. Secondly, the book also serves as a testament to my own journey in archaeology and my commitment to bring opportunity to young people interested in this field. Despite facing obstacles such as the Covid-19 pandemic and legal issues, I have found my way around and am now passionate about providing opportunities for the next generation of archaeologists.
The book is available in electronic and physical form on Amazon. All proceeds of my book go towards the Excavation Nations Donation Station, whose proceeds go to providing archaeological resources and books to underprivileged districts.
Best, Theo Chiang
Another way in which we were able to explore beyond the scope of our fieldwork was by visiting Cahokia where we trekked an elaborate mound ten stories high. While hiking, we saw different physical levels of the mound and holes where ancient structures were once rooted to the ground, allowing us to imagine the complex planning and infrastructure that Mississippian peoples once created. Through this visit, I gained enhanced awe and engagement with the culture I was studying and felt that I was able to witness a vast culture’s tangible legacy. Along with searching a nearby creek for chert pieces with buddies, this visit was certainly one of the most enjoyable moments of my field experience.
The Center for American Archaeology Field school impressed me with its great emphasis on community learning, apprenticeship, and the archaeological process from a perspective far more concrete than my prior online experiences. From the genuine personalities of the people I worked with to the physical archaeological work that made my readings more meaningful, I feel that I've truly gained a greater grasp of the field. After missing so many opportunities to work in person due to Covid-19, I am glad to have finally found an opportunity to pursue fieldwork. I look forward to continuing to contribute to and explore the field of archaeology physically.
Although tabbing was the extent of our participation in the archaeological process, we were exposed to further research that took place utilizing the work we did. On Wednesday evening, Dr. King gave a presentation discussing discoveries in the Late Woodland study as well as work he conducted based on sites such as the German Site. The presentation was themed with a curious salmon-pink gradient with the white outlines of a flamingo-looking bird lined up in a strip across the screen. We later learned that this bird was a Floridian Roseate Spoonbill which represented a very notable discovery made regarding the Late Woodland period. After giving introductory information on the structural characteristics of Jersey Bluff Era mounds and discussing the Cahokians' ideas regarding the construction of the universe, Dr. King discussed how despite the bird being native to a region across North America, it was still very present in Cahokia’s culture, being represented on pottery and being present in a grave site.
Another peculiar artifact Dr. King discussed was a smoke pipe depicting a raven “speaking” to a human, with the speech being represented as a thin line that spiraled down to a man’s head. Through discoveries such as these, archaeologists have been able to theorize and piece together the cultural thoughts, practices, economic systems, and religion of the indigenous people.
I think the presentation was immensely helpful in allowing us to realize how our work plays a part in a larger academic organization through which we can theorize and understand past cultures. It was also inspiring to see the research archaeology majors had conducted in pursuing their own interests.
The purpose of flotation discussed in the last post is to ensure that all items in a volume of soil are recovered. However, larger objects can also be directly picked from the ground and go directly to tabbing. Throughout this whole process, tags from the site are very carefully handled to ensure that the context of any artifact is retained. This is especially true during the process of tabbing.
Laboratory work consisted of tabbing, a process wherein the resulting pieces of floted soil bags are sorted. At the Center for American Archaeology Field School, students would perform tabbing nearly every day at varying times. The artifacts we bagged were relatively similar to the ones that we excavated. Many items we were given were, in fact, from the German Site.
